The Olympic Games is an international multi-sport event established for both summer and winter sporting events. There have been two generations of the Olympic Games; the first were the Ancient Olympic Games (Greek: Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες; [Olympiakoi Agones]) held at Olympia, Greece. The second generation, known as the Modern Olympic Games were first held in 1896, in Athens, Greece. There are now four parts to the modern games, the Summer Games and Winter Games, with summer and winter Paralympic Games and the Youth Games.
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was founded in 1894 on the initiative of a French nobleman, Pierre Frédy, Baron de Coubertin. His vision was to bring together amateur athletes from around the world to compete in a variety of sporting events. The IOC has become the governing body of the "Olympic Movement," a conglomeration of sporting federations that are involved in the organization of the Games. As the Olympic Movement has grown so has the profile and complexity of the Games. The ideal of the pure amateur athlete had to evolve under the pressure of corporate sponsorships and political regimes intent on the creation of sports "dynasties." Some would debate whether Coubertin's original vision is recognizable in the current celebrations of the Olympic Games.
Participation in the Games has increased to the point that nearly every nation on earth is represented. This growth has created numerous challenges, including political boycotts, the use of performance enhancing drugs, bribery of officials, and terrorism. While the Olympic Movement is forced to address issues never before conceived by Coubertin, the Olympics continue to evolve in the face of these challenges. The Games also encompass many rituals and symbols that were established during their infancy in the late 19th and early 20th century. Most of these traditions are on display during the Opening and Closing ceremonies, and the medal presentations. Despite the complexity of the current modern Games, the focus remains on the Olympic motto: Citius Altius Fortius - Faster, Higher, Stronger.
Ancient Olympics
There are many myths surrounding the origin of the ancient Olympic Games, the most popular of which identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the creators of the games. According to the legend, Zeus held sporting events in honor of his defeat of Cronus, and his succession to the king of heaven. Heracles, being his eldest son, defeated his brothers in a running race and was crowned with a wreath of wild olive branches. It is Heracles who is believed to have first called the games Olympic, and established the custom of holding them every 4 years.[1] The legend diverges at this point. One popular story says that Heracles went on to build the Olympic stadium and surrounding buildings as an honor to Zeus, after he completed his 12 labors. After he built the stadium he walked in a straight line for 200 strides and called this distance a "stadion" (Greek: στάδιον, Latin: stadium, "stage") that later also became a unit of distance. Another myth associates the first Games with the ancient Greek concept of Olympic truce (ἐκεχειρία, ekecheiria). The most widely held estimate for the inception of the Ancient Olympics is BC 776.[2]
From then on, the Olympic Games quickly became much more important throughout ancient Greece, reaching their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, contests alternating with sacrifices and ceremonies honouring both Zeus (whose colossal statue stood at Olympia), and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia, who was famous for his legendary chariot races with King Oenomaus of Pisatis.[3] The number of events increased to twenty, and the celebration was spread over several days. Winners of the events were greatly admired and were immortalised in poems and statues.[4] The Games were held every four years, and the period between two celebrations became known as an Olympiad. The Greeks used Olympiads as one of their units of time measurement.
The Games gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power in Greece. After Emperor Theodosius I proclaimed Christianity the religion of the Empire in AD 393 and banned pagan rites, the Olympic Games were outlawed as a pagan festival. [5] The Olympics were not seen again until their rebirth 1,500 years later.
Revival of the Modern Games
Olympic Forerunners
Although the revival of the Olympic Games began in the mid-19th Century, many sports events with titles such as "Olympick" or "Olympian" Games were held before that and as early as the 16th Century. These sports events should not be confused with the re-establishment of the Olympic Games in modern times. These included an "Olympick Games" sports festival that was run for several years at Chipping Campden in the English Cotswolds. The present day local Olympick Games trace their origin to this festival.[6]
There is evidence of a European Olympic movement as early as 1796. Annually, from 1796–1798, L'Olympiade de la République was held in revolutionary France, and is an early forerunner to the modern summer Olympic Games. The premier event of this competition was a footrace, but various ancient Greek disciplines were also on display. The 1796 Olympiade also marks the introduction of the metric system into sport.[7] Later an "Olympian Class" was begun at Much Wenlock in Shropshire, England in 1850,[8] which was renamed "Wenlock Olympian Games" in 1859 and continues to this day as the Wenlock Olympian Society Annual Games. A national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organised by their founder, William Penny Brookes, at Crystal Palace in London, in 1866. This national Olympic Games was the first games to actually resemble an Olympic Games to be held outside of Greece.[9]
Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games proper was first shown by the poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem "Dialogue of the Dead" published in 1833. Meanwhile Evangelos Zappas, a wealthy Greek philanthropist, sponsored a modern revival of the Olympic Games. An international Olympic Games was held in an Athens city square in 1859. Later Zappas paid for the refurbishment of the ancient Panathenian Stadium. Another modern celebration of an international Olympic Games was held at this stadium in 1870, followed by another in 1875. The revival of the Olympic Games, sponsored by Zappas was a dedicated Olympic Games composed of athletes from two countries: Greece and the Ottoman Empire.[10]
At the same time, Baron Pierre de Coubertin was searching for a reason for the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871). He thought the reason was that the French had not received proper physical education, and desired to improve this.[11] Coubertin also sought a way to bring nations closer together, to have the youth of the world compete in sports, rather than fight in war. In 1890 he attended the "Olympian Games" of the Wenlock Olympian Society, and decided that the recovery of the Olympic Games would achieve both of his goals.
Coubertin built on the ideas of Brookes and the foundations of Evangelos Zappas. His aim was to globalize the Olympic Games and to that end he established the International Olympic Committee. In a congress at the Sorbonne University, in Paris, France, held from June 16 to June 23, 1894 he presented his ideas to an international audience. On the last day of the congress, it was decided that the first IOC Olympic Games would take place in 1896 in Athens. To organise the Games, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) was established, with the Greek Demetrius Vikelas as its first president.[12] The Modern Olympic movement was established and organised, and the inaugural Games were to be held in the nation of their origin.
1896 Games
The total number of athletes at the the first IOC Olympic Games was less than 250, which at the time was the largest international sports event ever.[13] The Panathenian Stadium used for the Olympic Games of 1870 and 1875 was refurbished a second time in readiness for the 1896 Games.[14] This first Modern Olympics had only nine disciplines: Athletics, Cycling, Fencing, Gymnastics, Shooting, Swimming, Tennis, Weightlifting, and Wrestling. The Greek officials and public were very enthusiastic about hosting the inaugural games, and at one point offered to host the Olympic Games permanently. The IOC decided differently, however, and the second Olympic Games took place in Paris, France. It was at the Paris Games that women were allowed to compete.[15]
Changes and Adaptations
After the initial success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics struggled. The celebrations in Paris in (1900) and St. Louis in (1904) were overshadowed by the World's Fair exhibitions, which were held at the same time and location. An example of the decline in the Olympics during this time can be seen in the St. Louis Games. These games hosted 650 athletes, all but 70 of these athletes were from the United States. The homogenous nature of these games was a low point for the Olympic Movement.[16] The games rebounded when the 1906 Intercalated Games (so-called because they were the second games held within the third Olympiad) were held in Athens, as the first of an alternating series of Athens-held Olympics. While they are currently not officially recognised as an Olympic Games, the 1906 Games served to revitalize the Olympic Movement. These Games attracted a broad international field of participants and generated great public interest, thereby marking the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Games.[17]
Winter Olympics
The first Winter Olympics were held in 1924 in Chamonix, France. While Figure Skating had been an Olympic Event at both the London Games and the Antwerp Games, and Ice Hockey had also been held at the Antwerp Games, the IOC felt the need for equality for the winter sports. At the 1921 Congress in Lausanne, the IOC decided to hold a Winter version of the Olympic games, which would feature only winter sports.[18] In 1925 the IOC made the Winter Games a permanent fixture in the Olympic Movement and mandated that they be celebrated every 4 years on the same year as their Summer counterpart.[19] This tradition held until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France, which was the last time the Summer and Winter Games were held in the same year. Beginning in 1994 the Olympic games have alternated on different 4-year cycles. Hence the most recent Winter Games were held in 2006, while the latest Summer Olympics were held in 2008.
Paralympics
In 1948 Sir Ludwig Guttman, determined to innovate new ways to rehabilitate soldiers after World War II, organised a multi-sport event between various hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics. Over the next 12 years Guttman and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing. In the 1960 Games in Rome, Guttman brought 400 athletes to compete in the "Parallel Olympics". The Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year since 1960, and have also been held in the host city of the Summer Olympics since 1988.[20]
Youth Olympic Games
The Youth Olympic Games (YOG) are planned to be a junior version of the Olympic Games. The idea for such an event was conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge, in 2001.[21] The Games will feature athletes between the ages of 14 and 18.[22] The IOC approved the games at the 119th IOC session in Guatemala City in July 2007.[23] The Youth Games versions will be shorter: the summer version will last at most twelve days; the winter version will last a maximum of nine days.[24] The IOC will allow a maximum of 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the summer games, while 970 athletes and 580 officials are expected at the winter games.[25] Each participating country will be allowed to send at least four athletes. The sports contested at these games will be the same as those scheduled for the traditional Games, but with a limited number of disciplines and events, and including some with special appeal to youth. Education and culture are also key components to this Youth edition.[21] Estimated cost for the games are currently $30 million for the summer and $15–$20 million for winter games.[26] The first host city will be Singapore in 2010; the bidding for the first Winter edition in 2012 is underway.
The Modern Olympics
From the 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, the Games have grown to 10,500 competitors from 205 countries at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.[27] The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is much smaller than that of their Summer counterpart. For example, Turin, Italy hosted 2,508 athletes from 80 countries competing in 84 events during the 2006 Winter Olympics.[28] As participation in the Olympics has grown, so has its profile in the international media. The Olympic Games are one of the world's largest media events. At the Sydney Games in 2000, an estimated 3.7 billion viewers watched the games on television, and the official website of the Sydney Olympics generated over 11.3 billion hits.[29]
The number of participating countries is noticeably higher than the number of countries belonging to the United Nations, which currently stands at 193. The International Olympic Committee allows nations to compete who do not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that many other international organizations demand. As a result, many colonies and dependencies are permitted to host their own Olympic teams and athletes even if such competitors also hold citizenship in another member nation. Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico, Bermuda, and Hong Kong, all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country. Also, since 1980, Taiwan has competed under the name Chinese Taipei, and under a flag specially prepared by the IOC. Prior to that year the People's Republic of China refused to participate in the Games because Taiwan had been competing under the name Republic of China.[30] The Republic of the Marshall Islands was recognised as a nation by the IOC on February 9, 2006, and competed in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing[31].
Olympic problems
Boycotts
The 1956 Melbourne Olympics were the first Olympics to be boycotted. The Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland refused to attend because of the repression of the Hungarian Uprising by the Soviet Union; additionally, Cambodia, Egypt, Iraq and Lebanon boycotted the games due to the Suez Crisis.[32] In 1972 and 1976, a large number of African countries threatened the IOC with a boycott, to force them to ban South Africa, Rhodesia, and New Zealand. The IOC conceded in the first two cases, but refused to ban New Zealand in 1976 because the boycott was prompted by a New Zealand rugby union tour to South Africa, and rugby was not an Olympic sport. The countries withdrew their teams after the games had started; some African athletes had already competed. Twenty-two countries (Guyana was the only non-African nation) boycotted the Montreal Olympics because New Zealand was not banned.[33]
Also at the Montreal Games of 1976, the People's Republic of China (PRC) exerted pressure on the IOC to keep the team from the Republic of China (Taiwan) from competing under the name "Republic of China". Despite a compromise that would have allowed Taiwan to use the ROC flag and anthem, the Republic of China refused to agree and as a result did not participate again until 1984, when it returned under the name "Chinese Taipei" and used a special flag.[30]
In 1980 and 1984, the Cold War opponents boycotted each other's games. Sixty-five nations refused to compete at the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The boycott reduced the number of nations participating to only 81, the lowest number of nations to compete since 1956. The Soviet Union and 14 of its Eastern Bloc partners (except Romania) countered by boycotting the Los Angeles Olympics in 1984. They contended that they could not guarantee the safety of their athletes. Soviet officials were quoted as saying, "chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria are being whipped up in the United States."[34] The 1984 boycotters staged their own Friendship Games in July-August.[35]
There had been growing calls for boycotts of the 2008 Olympics in Beijing in protest of China's poor human rights record and response to the recent disturbances in Tibet, Darfur, and Taiwan. President George W. Bush showcased these concerns in a highly publicized speech in Thailand just prior to the opening of the Games. Ultimately no nations withdrew before the games began, but some politicians, such as Canada's Prime Minister, Stephen Harper, refused to attend in protest. There have also been campaigns calling for Chinese goods to be boycotted.[36]
Politics
The Olympics have been affected by political incidents on many occasions. The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin are an example of how the Olympics have been used to promote a political agenda. The German Nazi Party promoted the 1936 Games as propaganda for the superiority of both the Aryan race and the facist political structure. Luz Long, a German competitor in the long jump, helped Jesse Owens (a black athlete) to win the long jump, at the expense of his own chance to win the event; some describe this as the "true Olympic Spirit." For his efforts he was posthumously awarded the Pierre de Coubertin Medal.[37] In a similar vein, the Soviet Union did not participate in the Olympic Games until the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. Instead, in 1928 the Soviets organized an international sports event called Spartakiads. Many athletes from Communist countries or from countries with close political ties to the Soviet Union chose not to participate, or were even barred from participating in Olympic Games, and instead participated in Spartakiads.[38]
A political incident on a smaller scale occurred at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City. Two American track-and-field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, who finished first and third in the 200-meter track and field race, performed the Black Power salute on the victory stand. The second place finisher, Peter Norman, wore an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge in support of Smith and Carlos. In response to the protest, the IOC's president, Avery Brundage, told the United States Olympic Committee to either send the two athletes home, or withdraw the complete track and field team. The USOC opted for the former.[39] The photo of the three men on the medal podium has become an iconic Olympic image.[40]
Interference of politics in the Games is not a thing of the past. Currently, the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran specifically orders its athletes not to compete in any Olympic heat, semi-final, or final that includes athletes from Israel. This directive had an impact at the 2004 Summer Olympics when an Iranian judoka who had otherwise earned his place, did not compete in a heat against an Israeli judoka.[41]
Doping
One of the main problems facing the Olympics (and sports in general) is doping, or the use of performance enhancing drugs. In the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to improve their athletic abilities. For example, the winner of the marathon at the 1904 Games, Thomas J. Hicks, was given strychnine and brandy by his coach, even during the race.[42] As these methods became more extreme, it became increasingly evident that doping was not only a threat to the integrity of sport, but could also have potentially fatal side-effects on the athlete. The only Olympic death linked to doping occurred at the Rome Games of 1960. At the cycling road race in Rome, Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines.[43] By the mid-1960s, sports federations were starting to ban the use of performance enhancing drugs, and the IOC followed suit in 1967.[44]
The first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance enhancing drugs was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use.[45] The most publicised doping-related disqualification was that of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson, who won the 100 meter dash at the 1988 Seoul Olympics, but tested positive for stanozolol. He subsequently had his gold medal stripped. It was awarded to runner-up Carl Lewis, who himself had tested positive for banned substances prior to the Olympics, but was not banned.[46]
Despite the testing, many athletes continued to use medication to improve their athletic ability without getting caught. In 1990, documents were revealed that showed many East German female athletes had been unknowingly administered anabolic steroids and other drugs by their coaches and trainers. Girls as young as eleven were started on the drug regimen without prior consent from their parents. American female swimmers, including Shirley Babashoff, accused the East Germans of using performance enhancing drugs as early as the 1976 Games.[47] No clear evidence of doping was discovered until after the fall of the Berlin Wall, when the aforementioned documents proved that East Germany had embarked on a state-sponsored program to dramatically improve their competitiveness at the Olympic Games and other international sporting events. Many of the culprits have been subsequently tried and found guilty of various crimes in the German penal system.[48]
In the late 1990s, the IOC took initiative in a more organised battle against doping, leading to the formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999. The recent 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics have shown that this battle is not nearly over, as several medalists in weightlifting and cross-country skiing were disqualified due to doping offences. During the 2006 Winter Olympics, only one athlete failed a drug test and had a medal revoked. The only other case involved 12 athletes with high levels of haemoglobin and their punishment was a five day suspension for health reasons. The IOC-established drug testing regimine (now known as the "Olympic Standard") has set the world-wide benchmark by which other sporting federations around the world attempt to emulate.[49] During the Beijing games 3667 athletes were tested by the IOC under the auspices of the World Anti-Doping Agency. Both urine and blood testing was used in a coordinated effort to detect not only banned substances but also blood doping. While several athletes were barred from competition by their National Olympic Committees prior to the Games, 3 athletes failed drug tests while in competition in Beijing.[50]
Violence
Despite what Coubertin had hoped for, the Olympics did not bring total peace to the world. In fact, three Olympiads had to pass without a celebration of the Games because of war: due to World War I the 1916 Games were cancelled, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because of World War II. The South Ossetia War between Georgia and Russia erupted on the opening day of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Both President Bush and Prime Minister Putin were attending the Olympics at that time and spoke together about the conflict at a luncheon hosted by Chinese President Hu Jintao.[51] When Nino Salukvadze of Georgia won the bronze medal in the 10-metre air pistol competition, she stood on the medal podium with Natalia Paderina, a Russian shooter who had won the silver. In a much-publicised image from the Beijing Games, Salukvadze and Paderina embraced on the podium after the ceremony had ended.[52]
Terrorism has also threatened the Olympic Games. In 1972, when the Summer Games were held in Munich, West Germany, eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the terrorist group Black September in what is now known as the Munich massacre. A bungled liberation attempt led to the deaths of the nine abducted athletes who had not been killed prior to the rescue. Also killed were five of the terrorists and a German policeman.[53] Another example of terrorism at the Olympics came during the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta. A bomb was detonated at the Centennial Olympic Park, which killed 2 and injured 111 others. The bomb was set by Eric Robert Rudolph, an American domestic terrorist, who is currently serving a life sentence at ADX Florence in Florence, Colorado.[54]
The Olympics have also been used by regimes with human rights crises to try and silence their opposition. The Mexican government, ten days prior to the 1968 Summer Olympics, used the impending Olympic games as an excuse to crack down on student demonstrations in Mexico City. The incident would become known as the Tlatelolco Massacre.[55] The Chinese government has been accused of similar tactics in their dealings with the 2008 Tibetan unrest before the Beijing Olympics.[56]
Olympic Movement
The "Olympic Movement" is defined by the rules and guidelines outlined in the Olympic Charter. It includes organising committees for specific Games, International Federations for each sport featured at the Games, and the National Olympic Committees for each nation represented at the Games. The umbrella organisation of the Olympic Movement is the International Olympic Committee (IOC), currently headed by Jacques Rogge.[57] The IOC oversees the organization of the Olympic games and insures the host city is meeting its obligations. The IOC makes all the important decisions; such as choosing the host city for each Games, and the event programme of the Olympics. The three major components of the Olympic Movement beyond the IOC are described in further detail as follows:
- International Federations (IFs), the governing bodies of a sport (e.g., FIFA, the IF for football (soccer), and the FIVB, the international governing body for volleyball.) There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement.[58]
- National Olympic Committees (NOCs), which regulate the Olympic Movement within each country (e.g., USOC, the NOC of the United States). There are 203 NOCs that are recognized by the IOC.[27]
- Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (OCOG), which is the committee responsible for the organisation of a specific celebration of the Olympics. OCOGs are dissolved after the celebration of each Games, once all subsequent paperwork has been completed.
Criticism
One of the criticisms leveled at the IOC is their favoritism of host cities from the West. Of the 49 cities that have or will host an Olympic Winter or Summer games, 42 are located in either Europe or North America. Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the Olympics have been held in Asia/Oceania 4 times, which is a sharp increase compared to the previous 92 years of modern Olympic history. All bids by countries in South America and Africa have failed. There is an argument that the games should expand to include locations in poorer regions. The assertion is that the infrastructure improvements necessary to host a Games could provide significant long term benefit.[59] However, some host cities, including Montreal after the 1976 Summer Olympics, have had long-term financial problems attributed to the Olympic Games.[60]
In the past, the IOC has often been criticised for being a monolithic organization, with several members remaining on the Committee for life. The leadership of IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch was especially controversial. Under his presidency, the Olympic Movement made great progress, but was also viewed as autocratic and corrupt.[61] Samaranch's ties with the Franco regime in Spain and his long term as an IOC president (21 years, until he was 81 years old) have been points of criticism in the past.[62]
In 1998, it became known that several IOC members had taken bribes from the organising committee for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, in exchange for a vote on the city at the election of the host city. The IOC started an investigation, which led to four members resigning and six being expelled. The scandal set off further reforms, changing the way in which host cities are elected to avoid further bribes. Also, more active and former athletes were allowed in the IOC, and the membership terms have been limited.[63]
A BBC documentary aired in August 2004, entitled Panorama: "Buying the Games", investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed it is possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games,[64] Parisian Mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British Prime Minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee (headed by former Olympic gold medalist Sebastian Coe) of breaking the bid rules with financial and bribes. He cited French President Jacques Chirac as a witness but President Chirac gave rather more guarded interviews. [65] The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy. A prominent member of the IOC, Marc Hodler, himself strongly connected with rival Sion, Switzerland's bid, exposed alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee. These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation. The allegations also served to sour many IOC members to Sion's bid and in fact may have helped Turin to capture the host city nomination.[66]
Four European groups have organized the International Network Against Olympic Games and Commercial Sports to oppose their cities' bids for future Olympic Games.[67] Also, an Anti-Olympic Alliance had formed in Sydney to protest the hosting of the 2000 Games. Later, a similar movement in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia organized to protest the hosting of the 2010 Winter Games. These movements were particularly concerned about adverse local economic impact and dislocation of people to accommodate the hosting of the Olympics.[68]
Olympic symbols
The Olympic movement uses many symbols to represent a variety of ideals espoused by the Olympic Charter. The Olympic Rings are the most widely recognized symbol. These five intertwined rings represent the unity of the five inhabited continents (with the Americas regarded as one continent). The five colored rings on a white field form the Olympic Flag. The colors, white, red, blue, green, yellow, and black, were chosen because each nation has at least one of these colors in its national flag. The flag was adopted in 1914, but the first Games at which it was flown were at 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. It is hoisted at each celebration of the Games.[69]
The Olympic Motto is "Citius, Altius, Fortius," a Latin phrase meaning "Swifter, Higher, Stronger." Coubertin's ideals are probably best illustrated by the Olympic Creed:
"The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well."[69]
Prior to each Games, the Olympic Flame is lit in Olympia, Greece and brought to the host city by runners carrying the torch in relay. There it plays an important role in the opening ceremonies. Though the torch fire has been around since 1928, the relay was introduced in 1936 as part of the then German government's attempt to promote their National Socialist ideology.[69]
The Olympic mascot, an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country, was introduced in 1968. It has played an important part of the games since 1980 with the debut of Misha, a Russian bear. The mascots of the most recent Olympic Games in Beijing were called the Fuwa. They are five creatures that represent the five fengshui elements important to Chinese culture.[70]
French and English are the official languages of the Olympic movement. The other official language used at each respective Olympic Games is the language of the host country. Consequently, every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the Opening Ceremonies) is spoken in French, English and the host country's native language.[71]
Olympic ceremonies
Opening
As mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremonies of a celebration of the Olympic Games.[72][73] Most of these rituals were established by the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium.[74]
The ceremonies typically start with the hoisting of the host country's flag and a performance of its national anthem.[72][73] The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theatre representative of the culture of that country.[74] The artistic presentations have continued to grow in scale and complexity. The Opening Ceremony at the Beijing Games reportedly cost $100 million alone, much of the cost incurred in the artistic portion of the ceremony.[75]
The traditional part of the ceremonies starts with a "Parade of Nations" (or of athletes), during which most participating athletes march into the stadium, country by country. Each country's delegation is led by a sign with the name of their country and by their nation's flag.[72][73]
Traditionally (starting at the 1928 Summer Olympics), Greece enters first, due to its historical status as the origin of the Olympics, while the host nation marches last.[74] (In 2004, when the Games were held in Athens, Greece marched last as host nation rather than first, although the flag of Greece was carried in first.) Between these two nations, all other participating nations march in alphabetical order of the dominant language of the host country, or in French or English alphabetical order if the host country does not write its dominant language in an alphabet which has a set order.[72][73] In the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, both Spanish and Catalan were official languages of the games, but due to politics surrounding the use of Catalan, the nations entered in French alphabetical order. The 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan saw nations entering in English alphabetical order since the Japanese language grouped both China and Chinese Taipei together in the Parade of Nations. For the 2008 Summer Olympics, instead of using either French or English, the countries were ordered by how many strokes it took to write the country's name in Simplified Chinese.[76]
After all nations have entered, the president of the host country's Olympic Organising Committee makes a speech, followed by the IOC president who, at the end of his speech, introduces the representative of the host country who declares the Games open by reciting the formula:
I declare open the Games of [name of the host city] celebrating the [ordinal number of the Olympiad] Olympiad of the modern era/[ordinal number of Winter Olympics] Olympic Winter Games.[77]
Before 1936, the Opener often used to make a short Speech of Welcome before declaring the Games open. However, since 1936 when Adolf Hitler opened both the Garmisch Partenkirchen Winter Olympics and the Berlin Summer Olympics, the Openers have unswervingly stuck to that formula. There have been two exceptions:
- In 1984, U.S. President Ronald Reagan opened the Los Angeles Summer Olympics with:
Celebrating the XXIII Olympiad of the modern era, I declare open the Olympic Games of Los Angeles.[78]
- In 2002, U.S. President George W. Bush opened the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, which were the first Olympic games held since September 11, 2001, with
On behalf of a proud, determined and grateful nation, then the standard opening formula following.[79]
Despite the Games having been awarded to a particular city and not to the country in general, the Olympic Charter presently requires the Opener to be the host country's head of state.[77] However, there have been many cases where someone other than the host country's head of state opened the Games. The first example was at the Games of the II Olympiad in Paris in 1900, when there wasn't even an Opening Ceremony. There are five examples from the United States alone where the Games were not opened by the head of state.[80]
Next, the Olympic Flag is carried horizontally (since the 1960 Summer Olympics) into the stadium and hoisted as the Olympic Anthem is played. The Olympic Charter states that the Olympic Flag must "fly for the entire duration of the Olympic Games from a flagpole placed in a prominent position in the main stadium".[77]
The flag bearers of all countries then circle a rostrum, where one athlete (since the 1920 Summer Olympics) and one judge (since the 1972 Summer Olympics) speak the Olympic Oath, declaring they will compete and judge according to the rules.[77] Finally, the Torch is brought into the stadium, passed from athlete to athlete, until it reaches the last carrier of the Torch, often a well-known athlete from the host nation, who lights the fire in the stadium's cauldron.[77] The Olympic Flame has been lit since the 1928 Summer Olympics, but the torch relay did not start until the 1936 Summer Olympics. Beginning at the post-World War I 1920 Summer Olympics, the lighting of the Olympic Flame was for 68 years followed by the release of doves, symbolizing peace.[77] This gesture was discontinued after several doves were burned alive in the Olympic Flame during the opening ceremony of the 1988 Summer Olympics.[81] However, some Opening Ceremonies have continued to include doves in other forms; for example, the 2002 Winter Olympics featured skaters holding kite-like cloth dove puppets. The 2008 Summer Olympics also included a physical formation of a dove using many people in lighted suits.
Closing
Various traditional elements also frame the closing ceremonies of an Olympic Games, which take place after all athletic events have concluded. Flag bearers from each participating country enter the stadium in single file, but behind them march all of the athletes without any distinction or grouping of nationality – a tradition that began at the 1956 Summer Olympics at the suggestion of Melbourne schoolboy John Ian Wing, who thought it would be a way of bringing the athletes of the world together as "one nation."[82] (In 2006, the athletes marched in with their countrymen, then dispersed and mingled as the ceremonies went on).
Three national flags are hoisted on flagpoles one at a time while the corresponding national anthems are played: The flag of Greece is raised on the middle pole honoring the birthplace of the Olympic Games, the flag of the host country on the lefthand pole, and then the flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games on the righthand pole.[83] (Exceptionally, in 2004, when the Games were held in Athens, only one Greek flag was raised.)
The president of the host country's Olympic Organising Committee makes a speech, followed by the IOC president, who at the end of his speech formally closes the Olympics, by saying:
I declare the Games of the [ordinal number] Olympiad/[ordinal number] Olympic Winter Games closed and, in accordance with tradition, I call upon the youth of the world to assemble four years from now in [name of host city] to celebrate the Games of the [subsequent ordinal number] Olympiad/[subsequent ordinal number] Olympic Winter Games.
The Olympic Flame is extinguished, and while the Olympic anthem is being played, the Olympic Flag that was hoisted during the opening ceremonies is lowered from the flagpole and carried horizontally from the stadium.[84]
In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony (because the tradition began in 1920), the mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic Flag to the president of the IOC, who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games.[77] The receiving mayor then waves the flag eight times. There are three such flags, differing from all other copies in that they have a six-coloured fringe around the flag, and are tied with six coloured ribbons to a flagstaff:
- The Antwerp flag: Was presented to the IOC at the 1920 Summer Olympics by the city of Antwerp, Belgium, and was passed on to the next organising city of the Summer Olympics until the Games of Seoul 1988.
- The Oslo flag: Was presented to the IOC at the 1952 Winter Olympics by the city of Oslo, Norway, and is passed on to the next organising city of the Winter Olympics.
- The Seoul flag: Was presented to the IOC at the 1988 Summer Olympics by the city of Seoul, The Republic of Korea (South Korea) as a replacement for the Antwerp flag that is passed on to the next organising city of the Summer Olympics
This tradition posed a particular challenge at the 2006 Winter Games in Turin, Italy. The flag was passed from Sergio Chiamparino, the mayor of Turin, to Sam Sullivan, the mayor of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Mayor Sullivan, who is a quadriplegic, waved the flag by holding it in one hand and swinging his motorized wheelchair back and forth eight times.
After these traditional elements, the next host nation introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theatre representative of that country. This tradition began with the 1976 Games. During the Closing Ceremony of the Beijing Games the presentation by London, host of the 2012 Summer Olympics, featured guitarist Jimmy Page, recording artist Leona Lewis, and footballer David Beckham.[85]
Medal presentation
Usually soon after an Olympic event is completed a medal ceremony is held. Tradition dictates that a three-tiered rostrum be set up and the bronze and silver medalists stand on their podiums, while the gold medal winner ascends to the highest platform. The medals are awarded by a member of the IOC.[86] After medals are awarded, the flags of the nations of the three medalists are raised. The flag of the gold medalist's country is in the center and always raised the highest while the flag of the silver medalist's country is on the left facing the flags and the flag of the bronze medalist's country is on the right, both at lower elevations to the gold medalist's country's flag. The positions of the flags corresponds to the medal winner's positions on the podium. The flags are all raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist's country plays.[87] Citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies. They aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag bearers.[88]
Olympic sports
Currently, the Olympic program consists of 35 different sports, 53 disciplines and more than 400 events. The Summer Olympics includes 28 sports with 38 disciplines and the Winter Olympics includes 7 sports with 15 disciplines.[89] Nine sports were on the original Olympic programme in 1896: athletics, cycling, fencing, gymnastics, weightlifting, shooting, swimming, tennis, and wrestling. If the 1896 rowing events had not been cancelled due to bad weather, they would have been included in this list as well.[90]
At the most recent Winter Olympics, 15 disciplines in seven sports were featured. Of these, cross country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined, ski jumping, and speed skating have been featured on the programme at all Winter Olympics. In addition, figure skating made it's debut at the London Summer Olympics of 1908 and ice hockey was first contested at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp before the introduction of a separate Winter Olympics.[91]
In recent years, the IOC has added several new sports to the programme to attract attention from young spectators. Examples of such sports include snowboarding and beach volleyball. There is currently an effort underway to make Cricket an Olympic sport.[92] It appears though the growth in the number of sports included at an Olympics has plateaued[93] The IOC decided to discontinue baseball and softball beginning in 2012. Rugby was played in the 1900, 1908, 1920 and 1924 Olympics but was discontinued in 1928.[94]
Rule 48.1 of the Olympic Charter requires that there be a minimum of 15 Olympic sports at each Summer Games. Following its 114th Session (Mexico 2002), the IOC also decided to limit the programme of the Summer Games to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes. The Olympic sports are defined as those governed by the International Federations listed in Rule 46 of the Olympic Charter. A two-thirds vote of the IOC is required to amend the Charter to promote a Recognised Federation to Olympic status and therefore make the sports it governs eligible for inclusion on the Olympic programme. Rule 47 of the Charter requires that only Olympic sports may be included in the programme.[93]
The IOC reviews the Olympic programme at the first Session following each Olympiad. A simple majority is required for an Olympic sport to be included in the Olympic programme. Under the current rules, an Olympic sport not selected for inclusion in a particular Games remains an Olympic sport and may be included again later with a simple majority. At the 117th IOC Session, 26 sports were included in the programme for London 2012.[93]
Until 1992, the Olympics also often featured demonstration sports. The objective was for these sports to reach a larger audience; the winners of these events are not official Olympic champions. These sports were sometimes sports popular only in the host nation, but internationally known sports have also been demonstrated. Some demonstration sports eventually were included as full-medal events.
Amateurism and professionalism
The ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public schools greatly influenced Pierre de Coubertin.[95] The public schools had a deep involvement in the development of many team sports including all British codes of football as well as cricket and hockey. The English public schools of the second half of the 19th century had a major influence on many sports. The schools contributed to the rules and influenced the governing bodies of those sports out of all proportion to their size. They subscribed to the Ancient Greek and Roman belief that sport formed an important part of education, an attitude summed up in the saying: mens sana in corpore sano – a sound mind in a healthy body. In this ethos, a gentleman was one who became an all-rounder, not the best at one specific thing. Class prejudice against "trade" reinforced this attitude. Apart from class considerations there was the typically English concept of "fairness," in which practicing or training was considered as tantamount to cheating.[95] Those who practiced a sport professionally were considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practiced it merely as a "hobby." [95]
The International Olympic Committee invited a representative of the Headmasters' Conference (the association of headmasters of the English public schools) to attend their early meetings. The Headmasters' Conference chose the Reverend Robert Laffan, the headmaster of Cheltenham College, as their representative to the IOC meetings. He was made a member of the IOC in 1897 and, following the first visit of the IOC to London in 1904, he was central to the founding of the British Olympic Association a year later.[96]
In Coubertin's vision, athletes should be gentlemen. Initially, only amateurs were considered such; professional athletes were not allowed to compete in the Olympic Games. This exclusion of professionals has caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was disqualified when it was discovered that he played semi-professional baseball prior to winning his medals. He was restored as champion on compassionate grounds by the IOC in 1983.[97] Swiss and Austrian skiers boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of their skiing teachers, who were not allowed to compete because they earned money with their sport and were considered professionals.[98]
As class structure evolved through the 20th Century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentelman, became outdated.[95] The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur; as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. Nevertheless, the IOC, led by President Avery Brundage, held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.[99] In the 1970s, after Brundage left, amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter. Eventually the decisions on professional participation was left to the international federation for each sport. This switch was perhaps best exemplified by the American Dream Team, composed of well-paid NBA stars, which won the Olympic gold medal in basketball in 1992. As of 2004, the only sports in which no professionals compete is boxing (though even this requires a definition of amateurism based on fight rules rather than on payment, as some boxers receive cash prizes from their National Olympic Committees); in men's football (soccer), the number of players over 23 years of age is limited to three per team.[100]
Advertisement regulations are still very strict, at least on the actual playing field, although "Official Olympic Sponsors" are common. There have been conflicts at times between individual athlete sponsorship obligations and the official Olympic sponsors. Athletes are only allowed to have the names of clothing and equipment manufacturers on their outfits. The sizes of these markings are very restricted.[101] An example of this comes from the 1992 Basketball team from the United States. All athletes are required to wear the same uniform on the medal stand when receiving Olympic medals. The clothing sponsor for that year's Olympic team was Reebok, several of the players had sponsorship obligations that made it impossible for them to display the Reebok logo on camera. As a result those affected athletes had elected not to participate in the medal ceremony. In a last-minute solution the athletes were permitted to drape American flags over their shoulders to cover the logos.[102]
Olympic champions and medalists
The athletes (or teams) who place first, second, or third in each event receive medals. The winners receive gold medals (they were solid gold until 1912, after which they were made of gilded silver, though nowadays gold plated silver. Every gold medal must contain at least 6 grams of pure gold)[103] The runners-up receive silver medals, and the third-place athletes, bronze medals. In some events contested by a single-elimination tournament (most notably boxing), third place might not be determined, in which case both semi-final losers receive bronze medals. The practice of awarding medals to the top three competitors was introduced in 1904; at the 1896 Olympics only the first two received a medal, silver and bronze. Various prizes including works of art were awarded in 1900. The 1904 Olympics also awarded silver trophies for first place. It was at the Intercalated Games of 1906 that the three medal award format was first introduced. Since the IOC no longer recognizes these games as official Olympic games, the first "official" awarding of the three medals came in the London Olympics of 1908. From 1948 onward athletes placing fourth, fifth and sixth have received certificates, which became officially known as "victory diplomas". In 1984 victory diplomas for seventh- and eighth-place finishers were added. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, the gold, silver and bronze medal winners were also given wreaths.[104] Because the Olympics are held only once every four years, many athletes have become celebrities or heroes in their own country, or even world-wide, after becoming Olympic champions.
The question of which athlete is the most successful of all time is a difficult one to answer. The diversity of the sports, and the evolution the Olympic Games have undergone since 1896 complicate the matter. On top of this is the fact that some sports such as wrestling or boxing allow the competitor to win only one medal in an Olympics. It is further complicated by the fact that the IOC no longer recognises the Intercalated Games which it originally organised. While it may not be the most equitable way to measure success, a list of the most titles won at the Modern Olympic Games by individuals is one way to determine the greatest Olympic athletes of all time.
All-time Olympic Games individual medal count
Athlete  | Nation | Sport | Olympics |  Gold |  Silver |  Bronze | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Michael Phelps |  USA | Swimming | 2000–2008 | 14 | 0 | 2 | 16 |
| Larissa Latynina |  USSR | Gymnastics | 1956–1964 | 9 | 5 | 4 | 18 |
| Paavo Nurmi |  FIN | Athletics | 1920–1928 | 9 | 3 | 0 | 12 |
| Mark Spitz | USA | Swimming | 1968–1972 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 11 |
| Carl Lewis | USA | Athletics | 1984–1996 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 10 |
| Bjørn Dæhlie |  NOR | Cross-country skiing | 1992–1998 | 8 | 4 | 0 | 12 |
| Birgit Fischer |  GDR /  GER | Canoeing (flatwater) | 1980–2004 | 8 | 4 | 0 | 12 |
| Sawao Kato |  JPN | Gymnastics | 1968–1976 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 12 |
| Jenny Thompson | USA | Swimming | 1992–2004 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 12 |
| Matt Biondi | USA | Swimming | 1984–1992 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 11 |
| Ray Ewry | USA | Athletics | 1900–1908 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 8 |
| Nikolai Andrianov | USSR | Gymnastics | 1972–1980 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 15 |
| Boris Shakhlin | USSR | Gymnastics | 1956–1964 | 7 | 4 | 2 | 13 |
| Věra Čáslavská |  TCH | Gymnastics | 1960–1968 | 7 | 4 | 0 | 11 |
Medals per country
The IOC does not publish lists of medals per country, but the media often does. A comparison between countries would be unfair to countries with fewer inhabitants, so some have made calculations of medals per number of inhabitants or even per GDP.[105] A problem here is that for a very small country, gaining just one medal could mean the difference between the very top and the very bottom of the list (a point illustrated by the Bahamas' per capita number one position in 2004). On the other hand, a large country may not be able to send a number of athletes that is proportional to its size because a limit is set for the number of participants per country for a specific sport.
A comparison of the total number of medals over time is further complicated by the fact that the number of times that countries have participated is not equal, and that many countries have gained and lost territories where medal-winning athletes come from. A case in point is the USSR, which not only participated relatively rarely (18 times, versus 45 times for the UK), but also ceased to exist in 1991. The resulting Russian Federation is largely, but not entirely, equal to the former USSR. Also, one would have to use population statistics at the time.
The IOC medal tally chart is based on the number of gold medals for a country. Where states are equal, the number of silver medals (and then bronze medals) are counted to determine rankings. Since 1996, the only countries that have appeared in the top 10 medal tallies for all three subsequent Summer Olympics have been the Russian Federation, United States, China, France, Germany, Australia and Italy. Since 1994, the only countries that have appeared in the top 10 medal tallies for the subsequent Winter Olympics have been Norway, the Russian Federation, the United States, Canada, Germany, Austria, South Korea, Switzerland, France and Italy.
Olympic Games host cities
By 2010, the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 41 cities in 22 countries. The 2008 Summer Olympics have recently concluded in Beijing, and the 2010 Winter Olympics will be held in Vancouver. The number in parentheses following the city/country denotes how many times that city/country had then hosted the games, with said exclusions. This table does not include the "Olympic Games" organized by Evangelos Zappas prior to the IOC's creation in 1894. It does list the "Intercalated Games" of 1906, but the IOC no longer considers them to be official Olympic Games.
NOTE: The bracketed numbers listed beside the cities and nations are the number of times it has hosted the Games.
| Summer Olympic Games | Winter Olympic Games | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Olympiad | Host city | Country | № | Host city | Country |
| 1896 | I | Athens (1) |  Greece (1) | |||
| 1900 | II | Paris (1) |  France (1) | |||
| 1904 | III | St. Louis, Missouri(1) (1) |  United States (1) | |||
| 1906 | III | Athens (not recognized) | Greece | |||
| 1908 | IV | London (1) |  United Kingdom (1) | |||
| 1912 | V | Stockholm (1) |  Sweden (1) | |||
| 1916 | VI (2) | Berlin |  Germany | |||
| 1920 | VII | Antwerp (1) |  Belgium (1) | |||
| 1924 | VIII | Paris (2) | France (2) | I | Chamonix (1) | France (1) |
| 1928 | IX | Amsterdam (1) |  Netherlands (1) | II | St Moritz (1) |  Switzerland (1) |
| 1932 | X | Los Angeles, California(1) |  United States (2) | III | Lake Placid, New York (1) | United States (1) |
| 1936 | XI | Berlin (1) |  Germany (1) | IV | Garmisch-Partenkirchen (1) | Germany (1) |
| 1940 | XII (3) | Tokyo→ Helsinki | Japan→ Finland | V (3) | Sapporo→ St Moritz→ Garmisch-Partenkirchen | Japan→ Switzerland→ Germany |
| 1944 | XIII (3) | London | United Kingdom | V (3) | Cortina d'Ampezzo |  Italy |
| 1948 | XIV | London (2) | United Kingdom (2) | V | St Moritz (2) | Switzerland (2) |
| 1952 | XV | Helsinki (1) | Finland (1) | VI | Oslo (1) | Norway (1) |
| 1956 | XVI | Melbourne, Victoria (1) + Stockholm (2)(4) |  Australia (1) + Sweden (2) | VII | Cortina d'Ampezzo (1) |  Italy (1) |
| 1960 | XVII | Rome (1) | Italy (1) | VIII | Squaw Valley, California (1) |  United States (2) |
| 1964 | XVIII | Tokyo (1) | Japan (1) | IX | Innsbruck (1) |  Austria (1) |
| 1968 | XIX | Mexico City (1) |  Mexico (1) | X | Grenoble (1) | France (2) |
| 1972 | XX | Munich (1) | West Germany (2) | XI | Sapporo (1) | Japan (1) |
| 1976 | XXI | Montreal, Quebec (1) |  Canada (1) | XII | Innsbruck (2) | Austria (2) |
| 1980 | XXII | Moscow (1) | Soviet Union (1) | XIII | Lake Placid, New York (2) | United States (3) |
| 1984 | XXIII | Los Angeles, California (2) | United States (3) | XIV | Sarajevo (1) |  Yugoslavia (1) |
| 1988 | XXIV | Seoul (1) |  South Korea (1) | XV | Calgary, Alberta (1) | Canada (1) |
| 1992 | XXV | Barcelona (1) |  Spain (1) | XVI | Albertville (1) | France (3) |
| 1994 | XVII | Lillehammer (1) | Norway (2) | |||
| 1996 | XXVI | Atlanta, Georgia (1) | United States (4) | |||
| 1998 | XVIII | Nagano (1) | Japan (2) | |||
| 2000 | XXVII | Sydney, New South Wales (1) | Australia (2) | |||
| 2002 | XIX | Salt Lake City, Utah (1) | United States (4) | |||
| 2004 | XXVIII | Athens (2) |  Greece (2) | |||
| 2006 | XX | Turin (1) | Italy (2) | |||
| 2008 | XXIX | Beijing (1)(5) |  China (1) | |||
| 2010 | XXI | Vancouver, British Columbia (1) | Canada (2) | |||
| 2012 | XXX | London (3) | United Kingdom (3) | |||
| 2014 | XXII | Sochi (1) |  Russia (1) | |||
| 2016 | XXXI | To be announced | ||||
| 2018 | XXIII | To be announced | ||||
No comments:
Post a Comment